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<strong>American College Testing (ACT, Inc.)</strong> – An independent not-for-profit organization that provides assessment, research, information, and program management services in the areas of educational testing and planning, career planning, and workforce development.

public service employment (J2)<br />Jobs provided by national, state, regional or local governments to reduce the amount of unemployment. Some are of short duration, a temporary expedient to cope with a recession or to reintroduce to work long-term unemployed persons whose skills have diminished or become obsolete. But the increased role of the state in many countries has expanded the number of publicly financed jobs.<br /><em>See also:</em> public works; workfare

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output-inflation trade off (E3) see Phillips curve

downstream dumping (F1)<br />Exporting goods with artificially low prices because intermediate goods have been purchased below cost.

Sharpe, William, 1934- (B3)<br />Educated at the University of California, Los Angeles, and professor of economics at Stanford University since 1970. He has developed the CAPITAL ASSET PRICING MODEL to examine portfolio risk into its systematic and unsystematic elements. In 1990 he shared the NOBEL PRIZE FOR ECONOMICS with MARKOVITZ and MILLER.<br /><em>See also:</em> beta
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demarcation (J2, J5)<br />Reserving work activities for a particular occupation. Thus, for example, in an engineering plant where there is demarcation, tasks will be assigned separately to mechanical, electrical and electronics engineers. CRAFT UNIONs, anxious to protect the work available for their members, have been keen to follow this practice, especially in the UK. The inflexibility in the use of labour brought about by this practice has lowered productivity and increased labour costs.<br /><em>See also:</em> job control unionism

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diffusion rate (03)<br />The proportion of output of an industry using a particular technique by a stated date, e.g. the percentage of the steel industry using technique X by 2000. This is a major measure of technical progress and of INNOVATION. High rates of diffusion are encouraged by the possibility of cost reduction and by energetic advisory and information services.

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Keynes Plan (F3) see International Clearing Union

quantity theory of money (E4)<br />A macroeconomic theory relating the stock of money to the price leveL Although discussions of this theory are evident in MERCANTILIST writings (especially in LOCKE), it is to Irving FISHER, PIGOU and Milton FRIEDMAN one looks for twentiethcentury expositions. The Fisher or Yale equation is<br /> MV=PyT<br /> where T is the total volume of transactions, Vis the weighted average velocity of circulation, Py is an index representing the weighted average of prices of the commodities transacted and M is the total quantity of money.<br /> The Cambridge equation, attributed to MARSHALL and PIGOU, is<br />M=kPcR<br />where M is the total quantity of money, R is the total resources enjoyed by the community, k is the proportion of those resources which the public desires to hold in the form of money and Pc is an index number which values resources in terms of consumption goods.<br /> FRIEDMAN revived interest in the theory by expounding it as a theory of demand for real balances.<br /><em>See also:</em> monetarism <br /><em>Reference</em><br />Fisher, I. (1911) The Purchasing Power of Money, New York: Macmillan.<br /> Keynes, J.M. (1923) A Tract on Monetary Reform, London: Macmillan.<br /> Laidler, D. (1991) The Golden Age of the Quantity Theory The Development of Neoclassical Monetary Economics 18701914, Oxford: Philip Alan.<br /> Locke, J. (1823) Some Considerations of the Lowering of Interest and Raising the Value of Money. Collected Works, Vol. V, London (originally published in 1691).

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Oinks (Jl)<br />Double income, no kids: US professional couple with a high joint income and no dependants.
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<strong>Base year</strong> – For need analysis purposes, the calendar year preceeding the award year.
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eligible liability (E5, G2)<br />Sterling deposit liabilities (excluding deposits with an original maturity of over two years) + sterling resources obtained by switching foreign currencies into sterling. From 1971 to 1981 in the UK, commercial banks had to maintain 12\lo per cent of their eligible liabilities in the form of reserve assets.
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<strong>Disbursement date</strong> – The date loan funds are issued to the school or escrow agent. For a paper check, the disbursement date is the date the check is issued. For an electronic funds transfer via ACH or wire, the disbursement date is the date the funds are transferred from the lender to the school or escrow agent. (Note: under limited circumstances, a lender may also issue funds directly to the borrower.)

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<strong>Wage garnishment</strong> – The withholding of a portion of a borrower' s wages to repay a defaulted loan. (See also AWG.)
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<strong>Comaker</strong> – One of two married individuals who jointly consolidated their federal students loans before July 1, 2006. This term also applies to two parents who were joint borrowers of a PLUS Loan made prior to April 16, 1999.

managerial revolution (M1)<br />James Burnham's theory that after 1914 there was a transition from a capitalist to a managerial society with the class of managers dominant, operating most effectively where the state owns the means of production. Because managers became the ruling class, they exploited workers just as individual capitalists had done before, ensuring that there would be an unequal distribution of income. As managers without capital will not be guided by a profit motive, the economy they run will be less subject to cyclical fluctuations and crises and can be successfully planned; this planning will take a long-term view to encourage invention and innovation. Much of Burnham's argument is couched in Marxist terms as in his career as professor of philosophy at New York University (1932-54) his dominant concern was a socialist critique of contemporary society. GALBRAITH and others have viewed this revolution more loosely as a recognition of the transfer of power in corporations from shareholders to hired managers.<br /> <br /><em>Reference</em><br />Burnham, J. (1945) The Managerial Revolution, Harmondsworth: Penguin.
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limit price (D4)<br />The highest common price set by a group of sellers colluding together that they believe they can charge without new firms seeking to enter that industry in search of high profits.
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Mandeville, Bernard, 16 70-1 733 (B3) Dutch doctor of medicine and essayist who, after acquiring a doctorate in medicine at the University of Leiden in 1691, settled in London. In a series of poems and essays compiled as The Fable of the Bees (1714, 1724) he demonstrated that private vices such as vanity, fraud and theft promote the public good by providing much employment. In a sense he anticipated the INVISIBLE HAND principle of SMITH and the LAISSEZ-FAIRE Views of some classical economists.<br /><em>Reference</em><br />Hayek, F. A. (1966) 'Mandeville', Proceedings of the British Academy 52: 125-41. Mandeville, B. (1970) The Fable of the Bees, ed. P. Harth, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Household characteristics<br />Expenditure<br />Income<br />Regional characteristics<br />Regional expenditure<br />Regional income.
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<strong>FAT</strong> – Financial Aid Transcript, an official record of federal financial aid a student has received at schools the student previously attended.

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<strong>Secondary market</strong> – An entity that purchases education loans from eligible lenders. The secondary market obtains funds from investors or public bonds and uses those funds to purchase existing education loans from lenders.
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<strong>Cure</strong> – Reinstatement of a loan' s guarantee upon completion of a prescribed series of loan collection activities. Also defined as the process by which the loan' s guarantee is reinstated.

Pigou, Arthur Cecil, 1877-1959 (B3)<br />The Cambridge economist who was a fellow of King's College from 1902 to 1959 and professor of economics, in succession to MARSHALL, from 1908 to 1943. In Wealth and Welfare (1912), which was expanded into The Economics of Welfare (1920), he built upon Marshallian foundations a study of the size and distribution of national income and the case for government intervention. His other major works included Industrial Fluctuations (1927), Public Finance (1928) and Employ- ment and Equilibrium (1941). Although he was initially critical of KEYNES'S GENERAL THEORY, by 1949 he was prepared to concede that it was an original contribution to economic analysis.<br /> <br /><em>Reference</em><br />Casson, M. (1983) Economics of Unemployment, Oxford: Martin Robertson. O'Brien, D.P. and Presley, J.R. (eds) (1981)<br />Pioneers of Modern Economics in Britain, ch. 4, London: Macmillan.
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integrated pollution control (Q2)<br />A system of pollution licences covering a wide range of industries intended to control the overall levels of air and water pollution in a particular area.<br /><em>See also:</em> Environmental Protection Agency; pollution control
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the UK from 1925 to 1932) and in effect in the 1960s.<br /><em>See also:</em> dollar standard; gold bullion standard
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overtrading (M2)<br />Operating a firm with a low CURRENT RAno, a shortage of working capital so that a shortage of cash makes payment of wages, taxes and sums due to trade creditors impossible on the date due.<br /><em>See also:</em> undertrading

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output gap (E1)<br />The difference between the actual level of output of an economy and its potential or capacity output level, usually based on econometric modelling. A positive output gap reflects labour and other shortages threatening inflation; a negative gap restrains inflation.<br /><em>See also:</em> inflationary gap
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ex post variables (EO)<br />Variables which show actual econom1c outcomes, e.g. the amount of fixed investment which has been undertaken. In the 1930s there was much discussion in macroeconomics of how ex ante savings and investment that were different in amount became equal ex post. One possibility was for there to be saving at each round of income generated from an ex ante investment excess over ex ante saving.<br /><em>See also:</em> ex ante variables
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internal debt (H6)<br />The debt a government owes to the firms and households of the country it rules. This is the result of a government spending more than it taxes.<br /><em>See also:</em> external debt

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Federal Reserve System (E5)<br />The US banking system established in 1913 to execute the functions of a CENTRAL BANK for the USA. The original aims of the system were to give the country an elastic currency, to provide facilities for DISCOUNTING COMMERCIAL PAPER and to improve the supervision of banking. Heading the system is a Board of Governors in control of twelve district reserve banks with banking responsibility for a region of the USA. District 1 is the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, District 2 is the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and District 12 the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco. Member banks are below the reserve banks in this pyramid of authority with the Board of Governors as its apex. There are also a FEDERAL OPEN MARKET COMMITTEE and a Federal Advisory Council. The seven governors are appointed by the US president, with US Senate approval, and serve for fourteen years: they appoint the directors of the twelve district banks, fix RESERVE and MARGIN requirements and determine DiscouNT RATES and major banking regulations. The principal tasks of the district banks are to supervise member banks in their respective regions, to provide cheque collection services, to supply coin and currency, to lend to member banks at the discount rate and to act as the fiscal agent of the US Treasury, collecting taxes, marketing and redeeming US Treasury securities and paying interest on them. Fewer than 60 per cent of US commercial banks have membership of the Federal Reserve: if they do, they have the advantages of cheaper banking services but the disadvantage of losing profits through having to meet tougher reserve requirements.<br /> The changing monetary policies of the Federal Reserve reflect the dominant economic policy thinking of the decades of its history. The Roosevelt and Truman Administrations of the 1930s and 1940s gave it the task of maintaining FULL EMPLOYMENT and pegging interest rates at a low level. The Reagan Administration of the 1980s asked it to consider MONETARY AGGREGATES as its principal targets.<br /><em>Reference</em><br />Beckhart, B.H. (1972) Federal Reserve System, New York: American Institute of Banking.<br /> Moore, C.H. (1990) The Federal Reserve System: A History of the First 75 Years, Jefferson, NC: McFarland.

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